What is PolyHIPE-A Literature Review?

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Write a Literature Review on "Water/ Oil separation using PolyHIPE".

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Overview of PolyHIPEs

PolyHIPEs are the emulsion-template porous polymers that are being synthesized by the high internal emulsion phase. To describe the foams of the polymer, the researchers have discovered PolyHIPE. It is being developed as the absorbents and the carriers for the liquid. PolyHIPE is being defined as the template and substrate for the carbon porous. HIPEs are viscous and the emulsions are like paste which create the concentrated system of dispersing and the phase of dispersion contains the 74.05% of the complete volume of the fraction. The phase of dispersion is also known as the internal phase, external and the continuous phase (Akay, G., & Vickers, J. 2003). The monoliths of the PolyHIPE are the outcome of polymerization of the dispersed phase across the droplets of the inner phase, supervened by solidification. Further, the droplets are entrenched in the material of result. And because of the internal phase's concentration, the distribution of the size of the droplet is poly disperse and further forms into the non-spherical shapes and leaves behind the thin film of the outward phase among the adjoining droplets. The removal of the inner phase results to the emulsion’s replica of porous. As this is the simple process of molding, the emulsion of the liquid precursor is kept in the mold of a vessel of polymerization, a broad range of samples is available with varied sizes and shapes.

          Figure 1: PolyHIPE monolith
The open cells of the polymers are being characterized by the density of dry and low, generally less than 0.1 g cm-3 and minimum as 0.01 g cm-3 because of the interconnection of the voids. The diameter of the material of the PolyHIPE can be 1 mm to 100 mm, and the size of the pore can be 5 to 100 μm. The total of the pore can be 10 cm3 g -1. Further, the process of making PolyHIPE is very easy and simple, and monomers act as the agent of cross-linking. The internal phase is made of liquid i.e. water which is being added at a slow rate to the outward phase which includes the bigger droplets in order to get a steady emulsion (Hilonga et al., 2010). And because of the shrinkage of the film of the polymer at the time of polymerization due to the contraction volume of the monolith, interconnected ruptures which are being formed in the adjoining walls which separates the droplets of water from one another.

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Synthesis of PolyHIPE

The emulsion of HIPE was made by adding the stabilizers and water around 90 percent of the volume in the form of drops to the organic phase. It is very simple to prepare the PolyHIPE. 
 
                                            Figure 2: Recipe of PolyHIPE
The table above shows the preparation of PolyHIPE. SMO, along with the balance of lipophilic was used as the emulsifier for PolyHIPE. The selection of emulsifier for the monomer relied on the HIPE stability. The surfactant amount which weights around 20 percent of the organic phase was used for the making of PolyHIPEs. The PolyHIPE along with the EHMA included 20 percent of DVB due to the smaller content of DVB yielded the shrinkage of PolyHIPE during the time of drying. The table below shows the yield and density of PolyHIPE which are required for the preparation of P (DVB/EHMA/S). The organic phase was kept in the beaker (250-mL) and was then stirred with the bar of the magnetic stir. Further, the aqueous phase was drop by drop added along with the stirring and it continued for another 5 minutes. As a result, HIPE was the sheath with the saran wrap and was further kept in the oven for around 18 hours at 65°C for the polymerization (Ikem et al., 2008). The polyHIPE was eradicated from the beaker, and the water was distant during the process of drying in the oven. The drying was rapid which reflected the foam’s structure of the open-cell. 
 
                                                  Figure 3: PolyHIPE Density and Yield
The salt and surfactant remained in the polyHIPE during the process of drying and were further removed by extracting them. Then the polyHIPE was kept in the apparatus of Soxhlet and was further extracted along with water and methanol for the period of 24 hours each and were dried in the oven for 12 hours at 60°C. PolyHIPE various properties with the low density. The foams of polystyrene have more strengths as compared to conventional gas foams of the polystyrene. PolyHIPE has the capability to absorb the liquid in great quantities with the help of the action of Capillary. The immersion of polyHIPE in the yields of liquid which are absorbed in the pores is being accompanied by the air's displacement (Williams, J. M., & Wrobleski, D. A. 1988). The parameter of the solubility and the viscosity impacts the driving force of the capillary, and the volume is absorbed.

Modification of PolyHIPE

The polyHIPEs were being transformed in order to encourage the hydrophilicity and the absorption of water. There were two methods which were used for the maximization of hydrophilicity of the PolyHIPEs. Ethylhexyl acrylate was kept in water at the temperature of 70°C and was dried in the oven for 12 hours at 60°C. Ethylhexyl acrylate was absorbed in a beaker which contained around 20 percent of the solution of acrylic acid, and the weight of the potassium was 0.05 percent. Then the beaker was kept in the oven for 30 minutes for the polymerization of the acrylic acid. The foam was separated from the beaker and then further dried for 12 hours. The foam which contained the comonomer of fluorocarbon displayed the absorption of low water at the value of 97 percent (Walsh et al., 1996). This absorption showed the hydrophobicity of the polymer along with the rich comonomer of fluorine. It was expected that the coating of the acrylic acid surface encourages the hydrophilicity and the water absorption. The acrylic acid only filled the cells, but it did not coat the walls and it closed the structure of open-cell and minimized the porosity. Thus the treatment of poly impacted the structure of open cells and averted foam's penetration from the water. Further, the absorption of water maximized from 350 to 500 percent. There was a change in polyHIPE during washing, and it could be represented by the usage of FTIR as it was the spectra of SML, EHA, and CaCl22H2O. After washing, the salt which was present in the polyHIPE’s synthesized was being extracted (Northcott et al., 2007). A varied series of foam of copolymer were made from the emulsions of the internal phase. The emulsifier had a significant impact on the distribution and the size of the cell. SML which was produced by small cells with the help if the reduction of tension of interface and various large cells which maximized the viscosity at the high ratio of water to oil. SMO generated the invariant size of the cell due to less viscosity of the catalyzed polyHIPE. Methanol with the extraction of soxhlet extracted the surfactant from the HIPE.

                                   Figure 4: Modified PolyHIPEs

Applications of PolyHIPE

The materials of polyHIPE had identified the usage in the broad assortment of applications. The area in which the polyHIPE had been exploited, supported the phase of synthesis. The work which was done by Small and Sherrington demonstrates the usage of polyHIPE in the form of granules as a support for the gel of polyacrylamide which was used in the peptide phase of synthesis. The functionalism of the surface of polyHIPE in order to yield the bonds of the carbon which resulted to the anchoring of covalent of the gel and supported the matrix of polystyrene. The polyHIPEs were functioned by the aromatic substitution of electrophilic, employing the re-agents of hydrophobic. The modified materials of the sulfonic acid were utilized in the form of monolithic as the catalysts of acid for the cyclohexene hydration in a liquid process of two phase. The recent work in this particular area demonstrates the generation of functionalized amine polyHIPEs in the forms of monolithic and granules (Akay et al., 2005). The triamine transformed materials were utilized as the scavengers for the chlorobenzyl chloride in order to examine the usefulness as the resins of electrophile. Scavenging was identified as the rapid. The scavenging rods of the monolithic were made in columns and were being used in a manner of flow. It was identified that the scavenging was gained after the passes of the solution of electrophile through a column. In accordance to the groups of benzyl chloride, the esters of aryl were employed as the medium of functionalization of HIPE for the chemistry of solid phase. The materials of polyHIPE were made from the acrylates like nitrophenyl and trichlorophenyl. Another application in which the material of polyHIPE has been identified to be advantageous is like matrices in order to prepare the sensors of the electrochemical. It was identified the porous of the material of PolyHIPE would allow the integration of separating along with the senses, enabling the sensors in order to be utilized in the sight of contamination which was found in the media of liquid. Optimization of the preparation of polyHIPE included the surfactant level and the kind of substrate mold, enabled the generation of a thickness of the membrane to 100 μm and possessed the large areas and various other defects. These membranes were drenched with the ionophore solution (Vinodh et al., 2010).
 
                        Figure 5: Nitrophenyl acrylate

Property and Structure of polyHIPE

The area of the surface of the materials of PolyHIPE was made as demonstrated so far. Whereas the materials morphology is highly interconnected and porous along with the large size of the void. For example, the usage of the usage of polyHIPE as the support the catalyst for chromatography that requires bigger surface of the area. For example, the typical packing of silica material for the chromatography of liquidity which have the surface area of 200–300 m2 g−1. And the catalyst of heterogeneous which have the value of 500 m2 g−1. Therefore, the capabilities and the process of exchange need a high area of the surface. Further, there are various methods which are required to maximize the area of the surface of polyHIPEs. The material has a pore structure of the hierarchy, the voids are large that are the trail of the droplets of HIPE, the interconnection of the windows among the void and the pores throughout the walls of the polymer that comprises the material's solid phase. The area of the surface of these types of material is very high, but the mechanical properties of the polyHIPEs are being compromised. As a result, the structure of the monolithic collapses when mattered to the flow of liquids. The study of the impact of varied organic solvents of porogenic on the area of a surface of polyHIPEs was commenced upon to generate the high area of surface materials along with the better interpretation mechanically (Zhang, H., & Cooper, A. I. 2002). It was identified that solvent’s change from toluene to chloro benzene to chloroethyl benzene in order to maximize the area of the surface from 350 to 550 m2 g−1. Further, the cells of microgel are being produced along with the pores among them and a larger area of the surface. Moreover, it was accompanied by a transformation in material’s morphology to the one which was similar to the standard material of polyHIPE. The images of TEM are the material’s cellular and confirmed nature. Further, an increase in the diameter of the window is indicative of the stability of emulsion’s increase and was confirmed by various experiments which involved the monolayer's confession of the distant organic phases of the HIPE, and the packed interface was created because of CEB. It was also observed that the variation of the porogen of organic maximized the area of the surface. 

Mechanical and Thermal Properties

A temperature of DMTA sweeps the foams for P (S/DVB)-90/10 which are given in the table below. Tgs of P (EHMA/DVB) and P (S/DVB) which is 106 °C and -8 °C were collected from the peak of E" and also in the agreement with the values of literature. The impact of the content of DVB on P (EHA/DVB) E” and E’ can be seen in the figures which are given below. There is the maximization in E’ with great temperature with maximizing the content of DVB which further reflects the maximized density. The peak E" decreases whenever there is an increase in the content of DVB. The reduction in E" shows the decrease in damping demonstrated by the stiffness of the foams by the high densities of the cross-link. The peak E" moves to high temperature with the maximizing content of DVB, as per the expectations from the inherent rigidness of the content of DVB and from the density of cross-link (Groh et al., 2010). The Tgs variation can be seen in the figure below along with the content of DVB. The low Tg shows that the content of EHMA in a polymer is greater than the feed. The foams demonstrate the stress of the linear, through which the modulus of foam is being derived, a region of a plateau, a region of densification, compressive foam behavior of the stress. 

                      Figure 6: DMTA TEMPERATURE FOR P (S/DVB) AND VARIATION OF E” FOR P (EHA/DVB).

   Figure 7: VARIATION ON E' FOR P (EHA/DVB) AND VARIATION ONN P (EHA/DVB) WITH THE CONTENT OF DVB

HIPE Stabilized by Particles of Silica

If the polymerizable is the regular phase, HIPEs can be utilized as the templates for the polymer’s synthesis along with the applications as minimum weight scaffolds in the engineering of tissue. HIPEs are being categorized by the inner phase, and the ratio of the volume is 0.74, but earlier it was 0.7. HIPEs contains the organic and emulsion phase which are being stabilized by the surfactants great amount. The stabilized emulsions of the particles which are called as emulsions of picker have attracted the interest. The particles adsorb at the emulsion's interface because of great energy which turns them to emulsifiers. The capability of particles in order to adsorb at the emulsion's interface among the phases is completely relied on the particle's wettability. The particles of hydophillic like the metal oxides which stabilize the emulsion when the particles of hydrophobic like carbon stabilize the emulsion (Sergienko et al., 2002). Further, it is possible to change the particle’s wettability by adsorbing the molecules of surfactant on to the silanization.
The researchers predicted that the stabilized emulsions of the particle would face the invert across the inner phase with the volume of 0.5, but that was accounted experimentally. The stabilized emulsions of particle invert among the fractions 0.65 and 0.7 and the phase of the majority becomes the phase of continuity. The impact of the concentration of particle on the stability of the emulsion, the size of the droplet of the inner phase's fraction within the emulsion. Further, the HIPEs of picker were being polymerized in order to generate the porous HIPEs of the poly picker. 1g of the SP was concentrated in the chloroform mixture and OA in the ratio 1:2. Further, I was stirred for the period of three hours and being precipitated from the methanol’s solution (Akay et al., 2004). The OA which was in excess quantity was removed by repeatedly re-suspending it before drying it at 120°C. The content of OA was being determined through TGA in air. The emulsion phase of continuity was made by homogenizing the SP in PEGDMA and styrene’s same volume. The inner phase of aqueous was added drop by drop to the phase of organic along with the stirring at 400 rpm for the period of five minutes. Further, the HIPEs are being transferred to the tubes of falcon and polymerized for the period of 24 hours at 70 °C. Then, the PPHs were being dried for 24 hours at 120 °C in vacuum.  The HIPEs of the images were taken from the microscope.

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Water Absorption

The absorption of water in the hydrogel of polyHIPE maximizes with the time. The absorption of water is rapid and within a period of ten minutes it reaches to 100 percent for X17 and around 600 percent for X25 and X22. The water which is being absorbed for a longer period of time is much more than the reported value for various systems. Originally, the absorption of water is expected to minimize with the maximizing cross-linkage. The absorption of water is fast and more important for the cross-linkage high degree than for polyHIPE with a cross-linkage of low degree. The water which is being absorbed for the period of 45 hours is much more than the 50 percent with maximizing content of MBAM. The results show the existence of mechanism of water absorption in the polyHIPEs of hydrogel, absorption of water within the walls of PHEMA with the interaction with polymer hydrophilic and absorption of water within the structure of polyHIPE porous through the action of capillary. MBAM along with the amide groups of hydrogen is more hydrophilic as compared to HEMA. Further, the molecules of polymer becomes hydrophilic and also has a high tendency in order to absorb water to the great extent of cross-linkage. The micro gel walls of the nano porous along with the high area of surface in X25 and X22 encourages the action of capillary also yield the rapid absorption of water and the amount of absorbed water in X17 shows the lack of walls of nano porous and the low area of surface (Tai et al., 2001).
The hydrophilicity encourages the polyHIPEs action of capillary as compared to the polymers of hydrophobic by encouraging wetting. The synthesis of polyHIPEs hydrogel, the admixture of absorption of water through the interactions of hydrophilic along with the action of capillary. Furthermore, they are used to synthesize the absorbent materials of water for the applications like delivery of drug and the engineering of tissues. The cross-linked polyHIPE hydrogel with consistency of 0.13 g cc-1 which are further synthesized in the W-O polyHIPE. There is a slender window of synthesis containing the content of MBAM in which the water gets swollen and the particles of micro-gel gets separated and further make a wall structure of polyHIPE of heterogeneous with the porosity of nano scale. The lower contents of MBAM yield a structure which is partially frazzled and the higher contents of MBAM generates the Ostwald void of macroscopic and ripening. The typical structure of porous polyHIPE was concentrated with the wall porosity of nano scale in order to yield the important enhancements in the area of surface and the absorption of water. The polyHIPE of hydrogel with the high content of MBAM and a high temperature i.e. 230oC also had the high area of surface i.e. 17.5 m2g-1, the low modulus i.e. 5.4 MPa and the high absorption of water around 660-880 percent. Therefore, it is the impact of the content of MBAM on the hydrophilicity of polymer also on the structure of porous that arbitrate its impact on the properties.
 
Figure 8: variation of water absorption and impact of MBAM content on water absorption

Permeable Polymers of Macroporous are Synthesized from the Medium of Pickering and HIPE Template

The templates of the emulsion is a great method in order to prepare the organic polymers of the porous. The technique includes the formation of HIPE and the structure of the phase of continuity by depending on the separation phase of the induced reaction. The materials of polyHIPE are categorized because of the low density, structures of the open cells, resins of ion-exchange, the catalyst of heterogeneous, etc. The procedure of generating the beads of polyHIPE relied on the sedimentation method of polymerization. The droplets of the solution of monomer are polymerized during the process of sedimentation with the medium of sedimentation (Taralas et al., 1991). The oil in water HIPE was made by according light mineral oil to the solution of aqueous of monomers during the time of stirring. The ratio of the phase of oil to the phase of water was 8:2 v/v. further, the system of surfactant was formed. Then the HIPE was injected to the column of glass with the syringe which contained the mineral oil.

           Figure 9: Reaction conditions for the formation of beads of emulsion template
The droplets of the oil and water HIPE were made with the 2mm diameter. There was the sinking of droplets through the medium of sedimentation and were gathered at the bottom of a column of glass as the spherical beads of the polymerized. After sedimentation and injection, the beads were being left in the heated column of sedimentation for the period of three hours in order to complete the polymerization. During the reaction’s end, the beads were being recovered by the process of filtration and were washed with the acetone and n-hexane, and then they were dried at 50 °C in the vacuum. A series of polymer samples of beads was made by this technique under the conditioned reaction which was shown in the table. There is a difficulty in the in the association of the method of polymerization of sedimentation is that the gelation occurs at the rapid rate and the droplets don't coalesce at the glass column's bottom (Cameron, N. R. (2005). The requirement is stringent in the system because of the phase of polymer which constitutes the minute fraction of the total volume of the droplet. (<20 percent). Further, there is a technique to accelerate the growth of gelation by carrying out the conditioned reactions at high temperature. And if the medium of sedimentation is heated at 90oC, the uniform beads can be made along with the narrow size of the distribution.

References

  • Akay, G., & Vickers, J. (2003). Method for separating oil in water emulsions. European Patent, 1.

  • Akay, G., Birch, M. A., & Bokhari, M. A. (2004). Microcellular polyHIPE polymer supports osteoblast growth and bone formation in vitro. Biomaterials, 25(18), 3991-4000.

  • Akay, G., Bokhari, M. A., Byron, V. J., & Dogru, M. (2005). Development of nano-structured micro-porous materials and their application in bioprocess–chemical process intensification and tissue engineering. Chemical engineering: Trends and developments. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 171-197.

  • Cameron, N. R. (2005). High internal phase emulsion templating as a route to well-defined porous polymers. Polymer, 46(5), 1439-1449.

  • Groh, S., Diwakar, P. K., Garcia, C. C., Murtazin, A., Hahn, D. W., & Niemax, K. (2010). 100% efficient sub-nanoliter sample introduction in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma spectrometry: implications for ultralow sample volumes. Analytical chemistry, 82(6), 2568-2573.

  • Hilonga, A., Kim, J. K., Sarawade, P. B., & Kim, H. T. (2010). Rapid synthesis of homogeneous titania-silica composites with high-BET surface area. Powder Technology, 199(3), 284-288.

  • Ikem, V. O., Menner, A., & Bismarck, A. (2008). High internal phase emulsions stabilized solely by functionalized silica particles. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 47(43), 8277-8279.

  • Northcott, K., Oshima, S., Perera, J., Komatsu, Y., & Stevens, G. (2007). Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of mesoporous silicates for adsorption of metal ions. Advanced Powder Technology, 18(6), 751-762.

  • Sergienko, A. Y., Tai, H., Narkis, M., & Silverstein, M. S. (2002). Polymerized high-internal-phase emulsions: Properties and interaction with water. Journal of applied polymer science, 84(11), 2018-2027.

  • Tai, H., Sergienko, A., & Silverstein, M. S. (2001). Organic–inorganic networks in foams from high internal phase emulsion polymerizations. Polymer, 42(10), 4473-4482.

  • Taralas, G., Vassilatos, V., Sjöström, K., & Delgado, J. (1991). Thermal and catalytic cracking of n?Heptane in presence of CaO, MgO and Calcined Dolomites. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 69(6), 1413-1419.

  • Vinodh, R., Ilakkiya, A., Elamathi, S., & Sangeetha, D. (2010). A novel anion exchange membrane from polystyrene (ethylene butylene) polystyrene: synthesis and characterization. Materials Science and Engineering: B, 167(1), 43-50.

  • Walsh, D. C., Stenhouse, J. I. T., Kingsbury, L. P., & Webster, E. J. (1996). PolyHIPE foams: Production, characterisation, and performance as aerosol filtration materials. Journal of Aerosol Science, 27, S629-S630.

  • Williams, J. M., & Wrobleski, D. A. (1988). Spatial distribution of the phases in water-in-oil emulsions. Open and closed microcellular foams from cross-linked polystyrene. Langmuir, 4(3), 656-662.

  • Zhang, H., & Cooper, A. I. (2002). Synthesis of monodisperse emulsion-templated polymer beads by oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) sedimentation polymerization. Chemistry of materials, 14(10), 4017-4020.

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